4 April 2025
Centring Springs for Water Security in the Himalaya
Springs are the lifelines of mountain communities. Being groundwater resources, their invisibility except at their points of discharge puts them at a disadvantage of being uncared for in the mountains. In the ignorance of and lack of consideration of springs, what is forgotten is their relationship with baseflow of the Himalayan rivers. In fact, most mountainous water supply systems, whether the municipality, public health and engineering departments, private, or community, are dependent on springs – a fact that is slowly being recognized at the national level. A Niti Aayog Report, for instance, has led to the creation of the Spring Rejuvenation Framework.
At the state level, however, the importance of spring waters is yet to be recorded or recognized. This is significant because in India, water falls under the jurisdiction of the states. Nevertheless, because water traverses the boundaries of states as a flowing entity and not a static resource, this gives the Centre a crucial role to play in case of disputes over water, particularly surface water. The central government defined National Water Policies in 1987, 2002 and 2012 with its revision in process as proposed in 2021.
Different states interpret and implement central legislations differently, however. This is evident in the myriad institutions and organizations engaged in water governance. Even though groundwater and surface water are interlinked, they are governed separately by state mechanisms. Even with the multiplicity of departments engaging with groundwater, the lack of multidisciplinary data is glaring. Water security is not only about volume but about quality and access, too.
Complexities around Springs
This brings us to the ownership, management and usage of springs, which are defined by the agency of nature, law, and administrative definitions and communities.
When it comes to groundwater, it is relatively difficult to figure out the reserves, extraction and recharge, especially in the mountains. Springs are self-emerging water sources which cannot be extracted. Where you are located defines access to springs. The key factors which determine spring ecosystem health are aquifer and water quality, geomorphology, human impacts, institutional context, habitat, and biota. Soil and geology connect land use and land cover (LULC) changes with interactions between surface water and ground water which can lead to the deterioration of stream and water quality . LULC impacts on springs vary between different land uses and within the same category of land use – for example, afforestation with oaks would improve the water system but with pines would adversely impact it. Similarly, the size of the recharge area and its interaction with the discharge point is not well understood. Settlements are usually located on hilltops with a small recharge area and effective recharge methods for dense urban areas are unavailable.
Springs are defined by the law of the land, so there is an even chance that they might be a public or a private resource. Public springs which are visible with hundreds of households dependent on them, might have less chances of being privatised. The nature of ownership plus the institutions that get developed around them define access to springs. In the case of springs, local conflicts between forests and settlements over recharge and discharge areas and building one’s pipelines across another’s land are common problems. Throw in commercial users who tend to be powerful enough to arm-twist the suppliers and the situation is further complicated.
Figure 1 Spring source and jhora (natural drainage). Source: by the Author (2024)
Pressures on Springs
Almost 80% of springs assessed in Kashmir and Darjeeling have been found to be contaminated. This led to the issuance of a government advisory in Kashmir to use only tap water and if using spring water, to do so only after prolonged boiling. Most of the springs in the Himalaya are likely to be contaminated due to the sewage discharge and the drains running parallel to spring sources (Figure 1). However, in the popular conception, springs remain the purest source of water, as evident from their use for religious and ritualistic purposes. This is an advantage that should help promote the upkeep and the cleanliness of the immediate surroundings of the springs.
Communities have been at the forefront of spring management and conservation in the mountains, be it rural or urban. Even with state schemes in place, action on the ground is taken up by communities and primarily women in rural areas. In the Eastern Himalayan Region, especially Sikkim, Darjeeling and Kalimpong hills, community-based organizations called samaj exist. They enable welfare for communities under stress and have been engaging with water issues, too. Spring-based samaj or those defined by geography create rules of access. The legality or illegality of residence determines access to formal and sometimes, informal supplies. Household size impact storage which in turn impacts how much water is available per supply. Smaller storage implies buying less water more frequently thereby causing a larger portion of expenditure on water compared to if bigger storage were available.
Spatial constraints of urban mountain centres – surrounded by state-affiliated organizations like forest, tea plantations and army cantonments – mean that they have no space to expand. This leads to increase in density with every possible open and public space, like toilets, built over. Increase in vertical rise which increases the urban population density does not bode well for a place under tremendous water stress. Pollution, especially, of solid waste, is more visibly choking water systems and a solution does not seem to be in sight.
Securing Springs for Water Security
For the Himalaya, there is an urgent need to protect and conserve natural resources and enable equitable access to sufficient and clean water. The ownership, management and usage of groundwater needs to be fully understood and existing traditional or community-based water management mechanisms need to be better engaged. Springs need to be viewed not only as point sources but as a part of springsheds spreading over acres of land as envisaged by the Dhara Vikas Yojana programme across the rural Himalayan region. This framework, however, now needs to expand beyond the biophysical and incorporate the legal, administrative, and community underpinnings for effective groundwater planning. This is necessary in order to ensure water security in the Himalaya.
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